It is the strong conviction of the authors that communities affected by disasters should be given the maximum opportunity to participate in emergency relief programmes. Participation, here, does not simply mean being involved in the construction of facilities, it means contributing ideas, making decisions and taking responsibility. All too often refugees and displaced people are treated by relief agencies as helpless entities that need to be fed, watered and sheltered. The fact that they are people with considerable knowledge, skills, empathy and pride is often overlooked or forgotten.
What is meant by community participation?
Community participation can be loosely defined as the involvement of people in a community in projects to solve their own problems. People cannot be forced to ‘participate’ in projects which affect their lives but should be given the opportunity where possible. This is held to be a basic human right and a fundamental principle of democracy. Community participation is especially important in emergency sanitation programmes where people may be unaccustomed to their surroundings and new sanitation facilities.
Community participation can take place during any of the following activities:
- Needs assessment – expressing opinions about desirable improvements, prioritising goals and negotiating with agencies
- Planning – formulating objectives, setting goals, criticizing plans
- Mobilising – raising awareness in a community about needs, establishing or supporting organisational structures within the community
- Training – participation in formal or informal training activities to enhance communica- tion, construction, maintenance and financial management skills
- Implementing – engaging in management activities; contributing directly to construc- tion, operation and maintenance with labour and materials; contributing cash towards costs, paying of services or membership fees of community organisations
- Monitoring and evaluation – participating in the appraisal of work done, recognising improvements that can be made and redefining needs
Most emergency sanitation programmes tend to be designed and executed by the relief agency; however, this does not mean that the community is unable or unwilling to participate in some or all of the activities outlined above.
Incentives of community participation
The following are some of the main reasons why people are usually willing to participate in humanitarian programmes:
- Community participation motivates people to work together – people feel a sense of community and recognise the benefits of their involvement.
- Social, religious or traditional obligations for mutual help
- Genuine community participation – people see a genuine opportunity to better their own lives and for the community as a whole
Remuneration in cash or kind
There are often strong genuine reasons why people wish to participate in programmes. All
too often aid workers assume that people will only do anything for remuneration and have no Genuine concern for their own predicament or that of the community as a whole. This is often the result of the actions of the agency itself, in throwing money or food at community members without meaningful dialogue or consultation. Remuneration is an acceptable incentive but is usually not the only, or even the primary, motivation.
Disincentives to community participation
The following are some of the main reasons why individuals and/or community may be reluctant to take part in community participation:
- An unfair distribution of work or benefits amongst members of the community
-A highly individualistic society where there is little or no sense of community
- The feeling that the government or agency should provide the facilities
- Agency treatment of community members – if people are treated as being helpless they are more likely to act as if they are Generally, people are ready and willing to participate; the biggest disincentive to this is probably the attitude and actions of the agency concerned. Treating people with respect, listening to them and learning from them will go a long way toward building a successful programme; it will also save time and resources in the long run and contribute greatly to programme sustainability. Fieldworkers who expect members of the affected community to be grateful for their presence without recognising and empathising with them as people may satisfy their own egos but will have little other positive effect.
Community participation can contribute greatly to the effectiveness and efficiency of a programme; the crucial factor in its success is the attitude of agency staff in the field.
If staff do not treat people with respect or are seen to favour particular individuals or groups within a community, this can have a highly destructive effect on participation. For this reason it is important to identify key representatives and groups within the affected population early.
Stakeholder analysis
It may not be possible for each and every member of the affected population to contribute to a programme equally but attempts can be made to identify key groups and individuals that can be actively involved. A useful tool to assess whom the programme will affect (positively or negatively) and therefore who should have a stake in the programme is stakeholder analysis. This should be used to identify key stakeholders and their interests. Stakeholders may include different people from within the affected population, as well as local authorities and agencies. The likely effect or impact of the programme on each stakeholder is indicated as either positive or negative. The influence of these stakeholders over the current project is ranked between 1 and 6; 1 for maximum influence and 6 for minimum influence. The importance of each stakeholder for programme success is also ranked between 1 and 6, 1 being most important. This ranking can be done by a group of agency staff at the onset of an emergency programme, or by a group of different stakeholders, however the process should be as objective as possible. This is only an example and numbers may vary considerably depending on the situation. The purpose of this tool is to identify all those on whom the programme will have an effect and assess the relative importance and influence of those groups or individuals. If, as in the above example, community members are of great importance but have little influence over the programme, community participation techniques can be used to overcome this and give these stakeholders greater say.
Gender and vulnerable groups
It is very important to make sure that minority groups, low status groups and poorer groups in a community are not left out and that women, men and children are specified in consultation processes.
Gender
Gender is based on sex but is more to do with socially constructed distinctions (work, dress, behaviour, expectations, etc.) than purely biological differences. Gender-related differences can be split into three categories:
- Differing needs and priorities
- Power and vulnerability differences
- Equity or equality issues (Smout et al., 2000)
Consideration of gender relates to men, women, boys and girls and their needs, priorities, vulnerabilities and strengths. Ultimately, consideration of gender issues benefits everyone. Since many donors focus on the vulnerabilities of the intended beneficiaries there often tends to be a focus on women in programme activities. This is because in most scenarios women have less influence than men, and it is for this reason that women’s groups are often set up to provide a forum for women’s views to contribute to programme design and implementation.
It is important to recognise, however, that gender does not automatically mean a bias towards women; the emphasis should be on the pursuit of equity of opportunity.
People with disabilities
People with physical and mental disabilitiese can often be overlooked in many emergency situations. They are among the most vulnerable in most societies and are often unable to present their own needs and priorities clearly. For this reason they should be given special attention where possible. This may include the construction of special sanitation facilities, assistance in community activities and the formation of focus groups for people with disabilities.
Elderly people
Elderly people may have specific needs which should be considered. For example, elderly people living without younger family members may be unable to participate in physical activities such as pit excavation or latrine construction. Such vulnerable households should be identified and solutions to their problems implemented.
Participation matrix
A participation matrix is a tool to identify how different stakeholders may be involved at different stages of a programme. The columns indicate who should be informed of activities and outputs; who should be consulted in conducting these activities; who should work in partnership to achieve the intended outputs; and who has ultimate control for each stage of the programme.
Community mobilisation
Community mobilisation applies to the way in which people can be encouraged and moti- vated to participate in programme activities. In order to mobilise a community successfully it is important to identify where people’s priorities lie and what it is that motivates them. A useful starting point is to identify community leaders in order to establish key contacts between the agency and the community. Care must be taken in doing this to ensure that all community members are represented.
Motivation sources may not always be immediately obvious. Male Congolese refugees in Zambia became much keener to construct family latrines once they were made aware that their female family members might be in danger of being sexually assaulted or raped when practicing open defecation.
Facilitation
Many participation activities in programme design are likely to take place in a group setting. Facilitation in the context of a group meeting applies to how a person with no decision- making authority helps the group to be more efficient and effective in planning, implement- ing, monitoring and evaluating (Svendsen et al., 1998). This is a difficult role to assume but is important if the community is to be given real decision-making power and responsibility. Professionals may need appropriate gender training or capacity building in participatory research and planning techniques in order to become effective facilitators.
Capacity building
Capacity building at community level may be important to develop skills and build confi- dence. This may be especially important for women who may lack experience of contributing to community planning. Capacity building through skills training and confidence building can be a key ingredient in motivating and mobilising different sections of a community.
Participatory appraisal techniques
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) are social research techniques used in the field when resources and time are often limited. These techniques require trained facilitators and substantial time investments if they are to be fully effective. The key differences between the two methods are that:
- RRA is a method used by outsiders to acquire information about a community quickly; and
- PRA is aimed at strengthening the analysing and decision-making power of the affected community.
RRA can be used by the implementing agency in assessment activities whilst PRA can be used in programme design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The agency can facilitate the process but it is community members that learn to analyse their situation, design and implement programme activities. From this interaction process it is hoped that agency staff from outside the community may change their attitudes and behaviour. Four PRA activities are described briefly in the following sub-sections; these are usually carried out in small focus groups.
Mapping
Community mapping is a useful tool for collecting information from the community concern- ing the location of activities which may not be obvious from observation alone. This may also help to explain how the affected community views their situation and where they see opportunities or constraints. This method is most effective when used by a small group, working to produce a large sketch map of the area in which they live. The map produced may be crudely drawn and not to scale, but can still provide valuable information
Ranking
Community members are asked to list their priorities in terms of their overall sanitation- related needs and their perceived needs for different sanitation facilities. The group facilitator should help to guide the group in considering what facilities or activities may be appropriate but ideas should come primarily from the participants. Table 12.3 shows an example ranking exercise for sanitation-related needs and priorities. The first priority is ranked 1, the second 2, and so on.
Motivation
Sanitation provision is not always a prioritised demand among disaster-affected communi- ties. Other issues such as food, water and health care may present more obvious needs. This is often due to a lack of understanding of the links between sanitation and health. The importance of hygiene promotion in helping to raise levels of awareness and sensitivity can be a key aspect of engaging and mobilising communities.
It is important to remember that no community is completely homogeneous but is likely to be made up of people with a wide range of backgrounds and characteristics. Therefore what motivates one group of people within a community may not motivate others. Raising awareness about the public health aspects of sanitation may motivate some people to participate, whilst the opportunity to raise one’s status or position in society may be a much stronger motivating force for other community members.
It is the strong conviction of the authors that communities affected by disasters should be given the maximum opportunity to participate in emergency relief programmes. Participa- tion, here, does not simply mean being involved in the construction of facilities, it means contributing ideas, making decisions and taking responsibility. All too often refugees and displaced people are treated by relief agencies as helpless entities that need to be fed, watered and sheltered. The fact that they are people with considerable knowledge, skills, empathy and pride is often overlooked or forgotten.
What is meant by community participation?
Community participation can be loosely defined as the involvement of people in a commu- nity in projects to solve their own problems. People cannot be forced to ‘participate’ in projects which affect their lives but should be given the opportunity where possible. This is held to be a basic human right and a fundamental principle of democracy. Community participation is especially important in emergency sanitation programmes where people may be unaccustomed to their surroundings and new sanitation facilities.
Community participation can take place during any of the following activities:
- Needs assessment – expressing opinions about desirable improvements, prioritising goals and negotiating with agencies
- Planning – formulating objectives, setting goals, criticising plans
- Mobilising – raising awareness in a community about needs, establishing or supporting organisational structures within the community
- Training – participation in formal or informal training activities to enhance communica- tion, construction, maintenance and financial management skills
- Implementing – engaging in management activities; contributing directly to construc- tion, operation and maintenance with labour and materials; contributing cash towards costs, paying of services or membership fees of community organisations
Monitoring and evaluation – participating in the appraisal of work done, recognising improvements that can be made and redefining needs
Most emergency sanitation programmes tend to be designed and executed by the relief agency; however, this does not mean that the community is unable or unwilling to participate in some or all of the activities outlined above.
Incentives of community participation
The following are some of the main reasons why people are usually willing to participate in humanitarian programmes:
- Community participation motivates people to work together – people feel a sense of community and recognise the benefits of their involvement.
- Social, religious or traditional obligations for mutual help
- Genuine community participation – people see a genuine opportunity to better their own lives and for the community as a whole
Remuneration in cash or kind
There are often strong genuine reasons why people wish to participate in programmes. All too often aid workers assume that people will only do anything for remuneration and have no
Genuine concern for their own predicament or that of the community as a whole. This is often the result of the actions of the agency itself, in throwing money or food at community members without meaningful dialogue or consultation. Remuneration is an acceptable incentive but is usually not the only, or even the primary, motivation.
Disincentives to community participation
The following are some of the main reasons why individuals and/or community may be reluctant to take part in community participation:
- An unfair distribution of work or benefits amongst members of the community
- A highly individualistic society where there is little or no sense of community
- The feeling that the government or agency should provide the facilities
- Agency treatment of community members – if people are treated as being helpless they are more likely to act as if they are
Generally, people are ready and willing to participate; the biggest disincentive to this is probably the attitude and actions of the agency concerned. Treating people with respect, listening to them and learning from them will go a long way toward building a successful programme; it will also save time and resources in the long run and contribute greatly to programme sustainability. Fieldworkers who expect members of the affected community to be grateful for their presence without recognising and empathising with them as people may satisfy their own egos but will have little other positive effect.
Community participation can contribute greatly to the effectiveness and efficiency of a programme; the crucial factor in its success is the attitude of agency staff in the field.
If staff do not treat people with respect or are seen to favour particular individuals or groups within a community, this can have a highly destructive effect on participation. For this reason it is important to identify key representatives and groups within the affected population early.
Stakeholder analysis
It may not be possible for each and every member of the affected population to contribute to a programme equally but attempts can be made to identify key groups and individuals that can be actively involved. A useful tool to assess whom the programme will affect (positively or negatively) and therefore who should have a stake in the programme is stakeholder analysis. This should be used to identify key stakeholders and their interests. Stakeholders may include different people from within the affected population, as well as local authorities and agencies. The likely effect or impact of the programme on each stakeholder is indicated as either positive or negative. The influence of these stakeholders over the current project is ranked between 1 and 6; 1 for maximum influence and 6 for minimum influence. The importance of each stakeholder for programme success is also ranked between 1 and 6, 1 being most important. This ranking can be done by a group of agency staff at the onset of an emergency programme, or by a group of different stakeholders, however the process should be as objective as possible. This is only an example and numbers may vary considerably depending on the situation. The purpose of this tool is to identify all those on whom the programme will have an effect and assess the relative importance and influence of those groups or individuals. If, as in the above example, community members are of great importance but have little influence over the programme, community participation techniques can be used to overcome this and give these stakeholders greater say.
Gender and vulnerable groups
It is very important to make sure that minority groups, low status groups and poorer groups in a community are not left out and that women, men and children are specified in consultation processes.
Gender
Gender is based on sex but is more to do with socially constructed distinctions (work, dress, behaviour, expectations, etc.) than purely biological differences. Gender-related differences can be split into three categories:
- Differing needs and priorities
- Power and vulnerability differences
Equity or equality issues
Consideration of gender relates to men, women, boys and girls and their needs, priorities, vulnerabilities and strengths. Ultimately, consideration of gender issues benefits everyone. Since many donors focus on the vulnerabilities of the intended beneficiaries there often tends to be a focus on women in programme activities. This is because in most scenarios women have less influence than men, and it is for this reason that women’s groups are often set up to provide a forum for women’s views to contribute to programme design and implementation.
It is important to recognise, however, that gender does not automatically mean a bias towards women; the emphasis should be on the pursuit of equity of opportunity.
People with disabilities
People with physical and mental disabilitiese can often be overlooked in many emergency situations. They are among the most vulnerable in most societies and are often unable to present their own needs and priorities clearly. For this reason they should be given special attention where possible. This may include the construction of special sanitation facilities, assistance in community activities and the formation of focus groups for people with disabilities.
Elderly people
Elderly people may have specific needs which should be considered. For example, elderly people living without younger family members may be unable to participate in physical activities such as pit excavation or latrine construction. Such vulnerable households should be identified and solutions to their problems implemented.
Participation matrix
A participation matrix is a tool to identify how different stakeholders may be involved at different stages of a programme. The columns indicate who should be informed of activities and outputs; who should be consulted in conducting these activities; who should work in partnership to achieve the intended outputs; and who has ultimate control for each stage of the programme.
Community mobilisation
Community mobilisation applies to the way in which people can be encouraged and moti- vated to participate in programme activities. In order to mobilise a community successfully it is important to identify where people’s priorities lie and what it is that motivates them. A useful starting point is to identify community leaders in order to establish key contacts between the agency and the community. Care must be taken in doing this to ensure that all community members are represented.
Motivation sources may not always be immediately obvious. Male Congolese refugees in Zambia became much keener to construct family latrines once they were made aware that their female family members might be in danger of being sexually assaulted or raped when practicing open defecation.
Facilitation
Many participation activities in programme design are likely to take place in a group setting. Facilitation in the context of a group meeting applies to how a person with no decision- making authority helps the group to be more efficient and effective in planning, implement- ing, monitoring and evaluating (Svendsen et al., 1998). This is a difficult role to assume but is important if the community is to be given real decision-making power and responsibility. Professionals may need appropriate gender training or capacity building in participatory research and planning techniques in order to become effective facilitators.
Capacity building
Capacity building at community level may be important to develop skills and build confi- dence. This may be especially important for women who may lack experience of contributing to community planning. Capacity building through skills training and confidence building can be a key ingredient in motivating and mobilising different sections of a community.
Participatory appraisal techniques
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) are social research techniques used in the field when resources and time are often limited. These techniques require trained facilitators and substantial time investments if they are to be fully effective. The key differences between the two methods are that:
- RRA is a method used by outsiders to acquire information about a community quickly; and
- PRA is aimed at strengthening the analysing and decision-making power of the affected community.
RRA can be used by the implementing agency in assessment activities whilst PRA can be used in programme design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The agency can facilitate the process but it is community members that learn to analyse their situation, design and implement programme activities. From this interaction process it is hoped that agency staff from outside the community may change their attitudes and behaviour. Four PRA activities are described briefly in the following sub-sections; these are usually carried out in small focus groups.
Mapping
Community mapping is a useful tool for collecting information from the community concern- ing the location of activities which may not be obvious from observation alone. This may also help to explain how the affected community views their situation and where they see opportunities or constraints. This method is most effective when used by a small group, working to produce a large sketch map of the area in which they live. The map produced may be crudely drawn and not to scale, but can still provide valuable information
Ranking
Community members are asked to list their priorities in terms of their overall sanitation- related needs and their perceived needs for different sanitation facilities. The group facilitator should help to guide the group in considering what facilities or activities may be appropriate but ideas should come primarily from the participants. Table 12.3 shows an example ranking exercise for sanitation-related needs and priorities. The first priority is ranked 1, the second 2, and so on.
Motivation
Sanitation provision is not always a prioritised demand among disaster-affected communi- ties. Other issues such as food, water and health care may present more obvious needs. This is often due to a lack of understanding of the links between sanitation and health. The importance of hygiene promotion in helping to raise levels of awareness and sensitivity can be a key aspect of engaging and mobilising communities. It is important to remember that no community is completely homogeneous but is likely to be made up of people with a wide range of backgrounds and characteristics. Therefore what motivates one group of people within a community may not motivate others. Raising awareness about the public health aspects of sanitation may motivate some people to participate, whilst the opportunity to raise one’s status or position in society may be a much stronger motivating force for other community members.
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